Articles | Volume 2, issue 4
https://doi.org/10.5194/wcd-2-1111-2021
© Author(s) 2021. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
https://doi.org/10.5194/wcd-2-1111-2021
© Author(s) 2021. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
Research article
| 
23 Nov 2021
Research article |
| 23 Nov 2021
| 23 Nov 2021
Characteristics of extratropical cyclones and precursors to windstorms in northern Europe
Weather and Climate Change Impact Research, Finnish Meteorological Institute, Helsinki, Finland
Hilppa Gregow
Weather and Climate Change Impact Research, Finnish Meteorological Institute, Helsinki, Finland
Joona Cornér
Institute for Atmospheric and Earth System Research/Physics, Faculty of Science, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
Victoria A. Sinclair
Institute for Atmospheric and Earth System Research/Physics, Faculty of Science, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
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Cited
26 citations as recorded by crossref.
- Historical and Future Windstorms in the Northeastern United States S. Pryor et al. https://doi.org/10.3390/cli13050105
- Future changes in North Atlantic winter cyclones in CESM-LE – Part 2: A Lagrangian analysis E. Dolores-Tesillos & S. Pfahl https://doi.org/10.5194/wcd-5-163-2024
- Quantifying the relative roles of dynamic, atmospheric thermodynamic, and oceanic thermodynamic forcings on Arctic sea ice from cold-season cyclones X. Lv et al. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00382-025-08021-y
- From winter storm thermodynamics to wind gust extremes: discovering interpretable equations from data F. Tam et al. https://doi.org/10.1017/eds.2025.10008
- Interhemispheric perspective on the most extreme surface winds in the storm tracks A. Stanković et al. https://doi.org/10.5194/wcd-7-1507-2026
- Edge presence and orientation drive wind-induced mortality in Swedish forests E. Delin et al. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13595-026-01356-4
- Event attribution of a midlatitude windstorm using ensemble weather forecasts S. Ermis et al. https://doi.org/10.1088/2752-5295/ad4200
- Currents and their drivers in the Archipelago Sea: insights from ADCP measurements H. Kanarik et al. https://doi.org/10.5194/os-21-2125-2025
- Classifying extratropical cyclones and their impact on Finland's electricity grid: insights from 92 damaging windstorms I. Láng-Ritter et al. https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-25-1697-2025
- Bound states for a quasigeostrophic two-layer model in a baroclinic shear flow X. Wu & Y. Shen https://doi.org/10.1016/j.euromechflu.2025.204403
- How Landmass Distribution Influences the Atmospheric Dynamics of Tidally Locked Terrestrial Exoplanets F. Sainsbury-Martinez et al. https://doi.org/10.3847/1538-4357/ad6d5b
- Large-scale perspective on extreme near-surface winds in the central North Atlantic A. Stanković et al. https://doi.org/10.5194/wcd-5-821-2024
- Assessing the intensification and impact of a historical storm in a warmer climate J. Øelund et al. https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-26-1039-2026
- Identifying controls of extratropical cyclone intensity at genesis time and during intensification in the North Atlantic and Europe J. Cornér et al. https://doi.org/10.5194/wcd-7-873-2026
- Boundary-layer height and surface stability at Hyytiälä, Finland, in ERA5 and observations V. Sinclair et al. https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-15-3075-2022
- Simulating sea level extremes from synthetic low-pressure systems J. Särkkä et al. https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-24-1835-2024
- The perfect storm: human influence on the loss potential of Eunice-like cyclones N. Leach et al. https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/ae886a
- Classification of North Atlantic and European extratropical cyclones using multiple measures of intensity J. Cornér et al. https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-25-207-2025
- Precipitation, moisture sources and transport pathways associated with summertime North Atlantic deep cyclones R. Stoffels et al. https://doi.org/10.5194/wcd-6-1743-2025
- On the Systematic Occurrence of Compound Cold Spells in North America and Wet or Windy Extremes in Europe G. Messori & D. Faranda https://doi.org/10.1029/2022GL101008
- Landscape configuration and storm characteristics drive spatial patterns of wind disturbance in boreal forest landscapes N. Kulha et al. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10980-024-01916-x
- Electricity Load Lost in the Largest Windstorms—Is the Fragility-Based Model up to the Task? J. Jasiūnas et al. https://doi.org/10.3390/en16155678
- Impact of wind speed and soil frost on electricity distribution system reliability J. Haakana et al. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e40846
- Flows, circulations, and energy transport in the outer and deep atmospheres of synchronous and non-synchronous hot Jupiters F. Sainsbury-Martinez & P. Tremblin https://doi.org/10.1051/0004-6361/202451603
- Strong polar vortex favoured intense Northern European storminess in February 2022 R. Williams et al. https://doi.org/10.1038/s43247-025-02175-7
- Characterization and Variability of Extratropical Cyclones in the Southwest Atlantic Ocean C. Padilha Reinke et al. https://doi.org/10.1155/adme/9965323
26 citations as recorded by crossref.
- Historical and Future Windstorms in the Northeastern United States S. Pryor et al. https://doi.org/10.3390/cli13050105
- Future changes in North Atlantic winter cyclones in CESM-LE – Part 2: A Lagrangian analysis E. Dolores-Tesillos & S. Pfahl https://doi.org/10.5194/wcd-5-163-2024
- Quantifying the relative roles of dynamic, atmospheric thermodynamic, and oceanic thermodynamic forcings on Arctic sea ice from cold-season cyclones X. Lv et al. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00382-025-08021-y
- From winter storm thermodynamics to wind gust extremes: discovering interpretable equations from data F. Tam et al. https://doi.org/10.1017/eds.2025.10008
- Interhemispheric perspective on the most extreme surface winds in the storm tracks A. Stanković et al. https://doi.org/10.5194/wcd-7-1507-2026
- Edge presence and orientation drive wind-induced mortality in Swedish forests E. Delin et al. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13595-026-01356-4
- Event attribution of a midlatitude windstorm using ensemble weather forecasts S. Ermis et al. https://doi.org/10.1088/2752-5295/ad4200
- Currents and their drivers in the Archipelago Sea: insights from ADCP measurements H. Kanarik et al. https://doi.org/10.5194/os-21-2125-2025
- Classifying extratropical cyclones and their impact on Finland's electricity grid: insights from 92 damaging windstorms I. Láng-Ritter et al. https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-25-1697-2025
- Bound states for a quasigeostrophic two-layer model in a baroclinic shear flow X. Wu & Y. Shen https://doi.org/10.1016/j.euromechflu.2025.204403
- How Landmass Distribution Influences the Atmospheric Dynamics of Tidally Locked Terrestrial Exoplanets F. Sainsbury-Martinez et al. https://doi.org/10.3847/1538-4357/ad6d5b
- Large-scale perspective on extreme near-surface winds in the central North Atlantic A. Stanković et al. https://doi.org/10.5194/wcd-5-821-2024
- Assessing the intensification and impact of a historical storm in a warmer climate J. Øelund et al. https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-26-1039-2026
- Identifying controls of extratropical cyclone intensity at genesis time and during intensification in the North Atlantic and Europe J. Cornér et al. https://doi.org/10.5194/wcd-7-873-2026
- Boundary-layer height and surface stability at Hyytiälä, Finland, in ERA5 and observations V. Sinclair et al. https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-15-3075-2022
- Simulating sea level extremes from synthetic low-pressure systems J. Särkkä et al. https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-24-1835-2024
- The perfect storm: human influence on the loss potential of Eunice-like cyclones N. Leach et al. https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/ae886a
- Classification of North Atlantic and European extratropical cyclones using multiple measures of intensity J. Cornér et al. https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-25-207-2025
- Precipitation, moisture sources and transport pathways associated with summertime North Atlantic deep cyclones R. Stoffels et al. https://doi.org/10.5194/wcd-6-1743-2025
- On the Systematic Occurrence of Compound Cold Spells in North America and Wet or Windy Extremes in Europe G. Messori & D. Faranda https://doi.org/10.1029/2022GL101008
- Landscape configuration and storm characteristics drive spatial patterns of wind disturbance in boreal forest landscapes N. Kulha et al. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10980-024-01916-x
- Electricity Load Lost in the Largest Windstorms—Is the Fragility-Based Model up to the Task? J. Jasiūnas et al. https://doi.org/10.3390/en16155678
- Impact of wind speed and soil frost on electricity distribution system reliability J. Haakana et al. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e40846
- Flows, circulations, and energy transport in the outer and deep atmospheres of synchronous and non-synchronous hot Jupiters F. Sainsbury-Martinez & P. Tremblin https://doi.org/10.1051/0004-6361/202451603
- Strong polar vortex favoured intense Northern European storminess in February 2022 R. Williams et al. https://doi.org/10.1038/s43247-025-02175-7
- Characterization and Variability of Extratropical Cyclones in the Southwest Atlantic Ocean C. Padilha Reinke et al. https://doi.org/10.1155/adme/9965323
Saved (final revised paper)
Latest update: 02 Nov 2026
Short summary
We create a climatology of mid-latitude cyclones and windstorms in northern Europe and investigate how sensitive the minimum pressure and maximum gust of windstorms are to four precursors. Windstorms are more common in the cold season than the warm season, whereas the number of mid-latitude cyclones has no annual cycle. The low-level temperature gradient has the strongest impact of all considered precursors on the intensity of windstorms in terms of both the minimum pressure and maximum gust.
We create a climatology of mid-latitude cyclones and windstorms in northern Europe and...
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