Articles | Volume 6, issue 2
https://doi.org/10.5194/wcd-6-345-2025
© Author(s) 2025. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
https://doi.org/10.5194/wcd-6-345-2025
© Author(s) 2025. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
Research article
| 
02 Apr 2025
Research article |
| 02 Apr 2025
| 02 Apr 2025
Investigating the influence of changing ice surfaces on gravity wave formation impacting glacier boundary layer flow with large-eddy simulations
Brigitta Goger
CORRESPONDING AUTHOR
Center for Climate Systems Modeling, ETH Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
Department of Atmospheric and Cryospheric Sciences, Universtität Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Austria
Ivana Stiperski
Department of Atmospheric and Cryospheric Sciences, Universtität Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Austria
Matthis Ouy
Department of Atmospheric and Cryospheric Sciences, Universtität Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Austria
Lindsey Nicholson
Department of Atmospheric and Cryospheric Sciences, Universtität Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Austria
Related authors
Nadja Omanovic, Brigitta Goger, and Ulrike Lohmann
Atmos. Chem. Phys., 24, 14145–14175, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-24-14145-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-24-14145-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
We evaluated the numerical weather model ICON in two horizontal resolutions with two bulk microphysics schemes over hilly and complex terrain in Switzerland and Austria, respectively. We focused on the model's ability to simulate mid-level clouds in summer and winter. By combining observational data from two different field campaigns, we show that an increase in the horizontal resolution and a more advanced cloud microphysics scheme is strongly beneficial for cloud representation.
Annelies Voordendag, Brigitta Goger, Rainer Prinz, Tobias Sauter, Thomas Mölg, Manuel Saigger, and Georg Kaser
The Cryosphere, 18, 849–868, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-849-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-849-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
Wind-driven snow redistribution affects glacier mass balance. A case study of Hintereisferner glacier in Austria used high-resolution observations and simulations to model snow redistribution. Simulations matched observations, showing the potential of the model for studying snow redistribution on other mountain glaciers.
A. B. Voordendag, B. Goger, C. Klug, R. Prinz, M. Rutzinger, and G. Kaser
Int. Arch. Photogramm. Remote Sens. Spatial Inf. Sci., XLIII-B2-2022, 1093–1099, https://doi.org/10.5194/isprs-archives-XLIII-B2-2022-1093-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/isprs-archives-XLIII-B2-2022-1093-2022, 2022
A. B. Voordendag, B. Goger, C. Klug, R. Prinz, M. Rutzinger, and G. Kaser
ISPRS Ann. Photogramm. Remote Sens. Spatial Inf. Sci., V-2-2021, 153–160, https://doi.org/10.5194/isprs-annals-V-2-2021-153-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/isprs-annals-V-2-2021-153-2021, 2021
Bernadette Rosati, Martin Gysel, Florian Rubach, Thomas F. Mentel, Brigitta Goger, Laurent Poulain, Patrick Schlag, Pasi Miettinen, Aki Pajunoja, Annele Virtanen, Henk Klein Baltink, J. S. Bas Henzing, Johannes Größ, Gian Paolo Gobbi, Alfred Wiedensohler, Astrid Kiendler-Scharr, Stefano Decesari, Maria Cristina Facchini, Ernest Weingartner, and Urs Baltensperger
Atmos. Chem. Phys., 16, 7295–7315, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-16-7295-2016, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-16-7295-2016, 2016
Short summary
Short summary
This study presents PEGASOS project data from field campaigns in the Po Valley, Italy and the Netherlands. Vertical profiles of aerosol hygroscopicity and chemical composition were investigated with airborne measurements on board a Zeppelin NT airship. A special focus was on the evolution of different mixing layers within the PBL as a function of daytime. A closure study showed that variations in aerosol hygroscopicity can well be explained by the variations in chemical composition.
Nadja Omanovic, Brigitta Goger, and Ulrike Lohmann
Atmos. Chem. Phys., 24, 14145–14175, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-24-14145-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-24-14145-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
We evaluated the numerical weather model ICON in two horizontal resolutions with two bulk microphysics schemes over hilly and complex terrain in Switzerland and Austria, respectively. We focused on the model's ability to simulate mid-level clouds in summer and winter. By combining observational data from two different field campaigns, we show that an increase in the horizontal resolution and a more advanced cloud microphysics scheme is strongly beneficial for cloud representation.
Annelies Voordendag, Brigitta Goger, Rainer Prinz, Tobias Sauter, Thomas Mölg, Manuel Saigger, and Georg Kaser
The Cryosphere, 18, 849–868, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-849-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-849-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
Wind-driven snow redistribution affects glacier mass balance. A case study of Hintereisferner glacier in Austria used high-resolution observations and simulations to model snow redistribution. Simulations matched observations, showing the potential of the model for studying snow redistribution on other mountain glaciers.
Calvin Beck and Lindsey Nicholson
EGUsphere, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2023-2766, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2023-2766, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
A glacier’s debris cover strongly modified its mass balance in contrast to a clean ice glacier. A key parameter for calculating sub-debris melt is the thermal diffusivity of the debris layer. Conway and Rasmussen (2000) present a method to estimate this value based on simple heat diffusion principles. Our analysis shows that the selected temporal and spatial sampling intervals effects the estimated value of thermal diffusivity, resulting in glacier melt being systematically underestimated.
A. B. Voordendag, B. Goger, C. Klug, R. Prinz, M. Rutzinger, and G. Kaser
Int. Arch. Photogramm. Remote Sens. Spatial Inf. Sci., XLIII-B2-2022, 1093–1099, https://doi.org/10.5194/isprs-archives-XLIII-B2-2022-1093-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/isprs-archives-XLIII-B2-2022-1093-2022, 2022
Adina E. Racoviteanu, Lindsey Nicholson, and Neil F. Glasser
The Cryosphere, 15, 4557–4588, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-4557-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-4557-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
Supraglacial debris cover comprises ponds, exposed ice cliffs, debris material and vegetation. Understanding these features is important for glacier hydrology and related hazards. We use linear spectral unmixing of satellite data to assess the composition of map supraglacial debris across the Himalaya range in 2015. One of the highlights of this study is the automated mapping of supraglacial ponds, which complements and expands the existing supraglacial debris and lake databases.
A. B. Voordendag, B. Goger, C. Klug, R. Prinz, M. Rutzinger, and G. Kaser
ISPRS Ann. Photogramm. Remote Sens. Spatial Inf. Sci., V-2-2021, 153–160, https://doi.org/10.5194/isprs-annals-V-2-2021-153-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/isprs-annals-V-2-2021-153-2021, 2021
Rebecca Mott, Ivana Stiperski, and Lindsey Nicholson
The Cryosphere, 14, 4699–4718, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-14-4699-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-14-4699-2020, 2020
Short summary
Short summary
The Hintereisferner Experiment (HEFEX) investigated spatial and temporal dynamics of the near-surface boundary layer and associated heat exchange processes close to the glacier surface during the melting season. Turbulence data suggest that strong changes in the local thermodynamic characteristics occur when westerly flows disturbed prevailing katabatic flow, forming across-glacier flows and facilitating warm-air advection from the surrounding ice-free areas, which potentially promote ice melt.
Tobias Zolles, Fabien Maussion, Stephan Peter Galos, Wolfgang Gurgiser, and Lindsey Nicholson
The Cryosphere, 13, 469–489, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-13-469-2019, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-13-469-2019, 2019
Short summary
Short summary
A mass and energy balance model was subjected to sensitivity and uncertainty analysis on two different Alpine glaciers. The global sensitivity analysis allowed for a mass balance measurement independent assessment of the model sensitivity and functioned as a reduction of the model free parameter space. A novel approach of a multi-objective optimization estimates the uncertainty of the simulated mass balance and the energy fluxes. The final model uncertainty is up to 1300 kg m−3 per year.
Lindsey I. Nicholson, Michael McCarthy, Hamish D. Pritchard, and Ian Willis
The Cryosphere, 12, 3719–3734, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-12-3719-2018, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-12-3719-2018, 2018
Short summary
Short summary
Ground-penetrating radar of supraglacial debris thickness is used to study local thickness variability. Freshly emergent debris cover appears to have higher skewness and kurtosis than more mature debris covers. Accounting for debris thickness variability in ablation models can result in markedly different ice ablation than is calculated using the mean debris thickness. Slope stability modelling reveals likely locations for locally thin debris with high ablation.
Christoph Klug, Erik Bollmann, Stephan Peter Galos, Lindsey Nicholson, Rainer Prinz, Lorenzo Rieg, Rudolf Sailer, Johann Stötter, and Georg Kaser
The Cryosphere, 12, 833–849, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-12-833-2018, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-12-833-2018, 2018
Short summary
Short summary
This study presents a reanalysis of the glacier mass balance record at Hintereisferner, Austria, for the period 2001 to 2011. We provide a year-by-year comparison of glaciological and geodetic mass balances obtained from annual airborne laser scanning data. After applying a series of corrections, a comparison of the methods reveals major differences for certain years. We thoroughly discuss the origin of these discrepancies and implications for future glaciological mass balance measurements.
Ulrich Strasser, Thomas Marke, Ludwig Braun, Heidi Escher-Vetter, Irmgard Juen, Michael Kuhn, Fabien Maussion, Christoph Mayer, Lindsey Nicholson, Klaus Niedertscheider, Rudolf Sailer, Johann Stötter, Markus Weber, and Georg Kaser
Earth Syst. Sci. Data, 10, 151–171, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-10-151-2018, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-10-151-2018, 2018
Short summary
Short summary
A hydrometeorological and glaciological data set is presented with recordings from several research sites in the Rofental (1891–3772 m a.s.l., Ötztal Alps, Austria). The data sets are spanning 150 years and represent a unique pool of high mountain observations, enabling combined research of atmospheric, cryospheric and hydrological processes in complex terrain, and the development of state-of-the-art hydroclimatological and glacier mass balance models.
Anna Wirbel, Alexander H. Jarosch, and Lindsey Nicholson
The Cryosphere, 12, 189–204, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-12-189-2018, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-12-189-2018, 2018
Short summary
Short summary
As debris cover affects the meltwater production and behaviour of glaciers it is important to understand how, and over what timescales, it forms. Here we develop an advanced 3-D numerical model that describes transport of sediment through a glacier to the point where it emerges at the surface. The numerical performance of the model is satisfactory and it reproduces debris structures observed within real-world glaciers, thereby offering a useful tool for future studies of debris-covered glaciers.
Ann V. Rowan, Lindsey Nicholson, Emily Collier, Duncan J. Quincey, Morgan J. Gibson, Patrick Wagnon, David R. Rounce, Sarah S. Thompson, Owen King, C. Scott Watson, Tristram D. L. Irvine-Fynn, and Neil F. Glasser
The Cryosphere Discuss., https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-2017-239, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-2017-239, 2017
Revised manuscript not accepted
Short summary
Short summary
Many glaciers in the Himalaya are covered with thick layers of rock debris that acts as an insulating blanket and so reduces melting of the underlying ice. Little is known about how melt beneath supraglacial debris varies across glaciers and through the monsoon season. We measured debris temperatures across three glaciers and several years to investigate seasonal trends, and found that sub-debris ice melt can be predicted using a temperature–depth relationship with surface temperature data.
Douglas I. Benn, Sarah Thompson, Jason Gulley, Jordan Mertes, Adrian Luckman, and Lindsey Nicholson
The Cryosphere, 11, 2247–2264, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-11-2247-2017, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-11-2247-2017, 2017
Short summary
Short summary
This paper provides the first complete view of the drainage system of a large Himalayan glacier, based on ice-cave exploration and satellite image analysis. Drainage tunnels inside glaciers have a major impact on melting rates, by providing lines of weakness inside the ice and potential pathways for melt-water, and play a key role in the response of debris-covered glaciers to sustained periods of negative mass balance.
Stephan Peter Galos, Christoph Klug, Fabien Maussion, Federico Covi, Lindsey Nicholson, Lorenzo Rieg, Wolfgang Gurgiser, Thomas Mölg, and Georg Kaser
The Cryosphere, 11, 1417–1439, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-11-1417-2017, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-11-1417-2017, 2017
Lindsey I. Nicholson, Michał Pętlicki, Ben Partan, and Shelley MacDonell
The Cryosphere, 10, 1897–1913, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-10-1897-2016, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-10-1897-2016, 2016
Short summary
Short summary
An Xbox Kinect sensor was used as a close-range surface scanner to produce the first accurate 3D surface models of spikes of snow and ice (known as penitentes) that develop in cold, dry, sunny conditions. The data collected show how penitentes develop over time and how they affect the surface roughness of a glacier. These surface models are useful inputs to modelling studies of how penitentes alter energy exchanges between the atmosphere and the surface and how this affects meltwater production.
Bernadette Rosati, Martin Gysel, Florian Rubach, Thomas F. Mentel, Brigitta Goger, Laurent Poulain, Patrick Schlag, Pasi Miettinen, Aki Pajunoja, Annele Virtanen, Henk Klein Baltink, J. S. Bas Henzing, Johannes Größ, Gian Paolo Gobbi, Alfred Wiedensohler, Astrid Kiendler-Scharr, Stefano Decesari, Maria Cristina Facchini, Ernest Weingartner, and Urs Baltensperger
Atmos. Chem. Phys., 16, 7295–7315, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-16-7295-2016, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-16-7295-2016, 2016
Short summary
Short summary
This study presents PEGASOS project data from field campaigns in the Po Valley, Italy and the Netherlands. Vertical profiles of aerosol hygroscopicity and chemical composition were investigated with airborne measurements on board a Zeppelin NT airship. A special focus was on the evolution of different mixing layers within the PBL as a function of daytime. A closure study showed that variations in aerosol hygroscopicity can well be explained by the variations in chemical composition.
R. Prinz, L. I. Nicholson, T. Mölg, W. Gurgiser, and G. Kaser
The Cryosphere, 10, 133–148, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-10-133-2016, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-10-133-2016, 2016
Short summary
Short summary
Lewis Glacier has lost > 80 % of its extent since the late 19th century. A sensitivity study using a process-based model assigns this shrinking to decreased atmospheric moisture without increasing air temperatures required. The glacier retreat implies a distinctly different coupling between the glacier's surface-air layer and its surrounding boundary layer, underlining the difficulty of deriving palaeoclimates for larger glacier extents on the basis of modern measurements of small glaciers.
E. Collier, F. Maussion, L. I. Nicholson, T. Mölg, W. W. Immerzeel, and A. B. G. Bush
The Cryosphere, 9, 1617–1632, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-9-1617-2015, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-9-1617-2015, 2015
Short summary
Short summary
We investigate the impact of surface debris on glacier energy and mass fluxes and on atmosphere-glacier feedbacks in the Karakoram range, by including debris in an interactively coupled atmosphere-glacier model. The model is run from 1 May to 1 October 2004, with a simple specification of debris thickness. We find an appreciable reduction in ablation that exceeds 5m w.e. on glacier tongues, as well as significant alterations to near-surface air temperatures and boundary layer dynamics.
G. Massaro, I. Stiperski, B. Pospichal, and M. W. Rotach
Atmos. Meas. Tech., 8, 3355–3367, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-8-3355-2015, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-8-3355-2015, 2015
E. Collier, L. I. Nicholson, B. W. Brock, F. Maussion, R. Essery, and A. B. G. Bush
The Cryosphere, 8, 1429–1444, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-8-1429-2014, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-8-1429-2014, 2014
W. Gurgiser, B. Marzeion, L. Nicholson, M. Ortner, and G. Kaser
The Cryosphere, 7, 1787–1802, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-7-1787-2013, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-7-1787-2013, 2013
S. MacDonell, C. Kinnard, T. Mölg, L. Nicholson, and J. Abermann
The Cryosphere, 7, 1513–1526, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-7-1513-2013, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-7-1513-2013, 2013
L. I. Nicholson, R. Prinz, T. Mölg, and G. Kaser
The Cryosphere, 7, 1205–1225, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-7-1205-2013, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-7-1205-2013, 2013
Related subject area
Boundary-layer dynamics incl. coupling to land, ocean and ice
Revealing the dynamics of a local Alpine windstorm using large-eddy simulations
Exploring the daytime boundary layer evolution based on Doppler spectrum width from multiple coplanar wind lidars during CROSSINN
Forcing for varying boundary layer stability across Antarctica
Variations in boundary layer stability across Antarctica: a comparison between coastal and interior sites
Adverse impact of terrain steepness on thermally driven initiation of orographic convection
Effects on early monsoon rainfall in West Africa due to recent deforestation in a convection-permitting ensemble
Vortex streets to the lee of Madeira in a kilometre-resolution regional climate model
Benefits and challenges of dynamic sea ice for weather forecasts
Extratropical-cyclone-induced sea surface temperature anomalies in the 2013–2014 winter
Nicolai Krieger, Heini Wernli, Michael Sprenger, and Christian Kühnlein
EGUsphere, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2024-3461, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2024-3461, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
This study investigates the Laseyer, a local windstorm in a narrow Swiss valley, characterized by strong south-easterly winds during north-westerly ambient flow. Using large-eddy simulations (LES) with 30 m grid spacing, this is the first study to reveal that the extreme gusts in the valley are caused by an amplifying interplay of two recirculation regions. Modifying terrain and ambient wind conditions affects the windstorm's intensity and highlights the importance of topographic details in LES.
Nevio Babić, Bianca Adler, Alexander Gohm, Manuela Lehner, and Norbert Kalthoff
Weather Clim. Dynam., 5, 609–631, https://doi.org/10.5194/wcd-5-609-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/wcd-5-609-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
Day-to-day weather over mountains remains a significant challenge in the domain of weather forecast. Using a combination of measurements from several instrument platforms, including Doppler lidars, aircraft, and radiosondes, we developed a method that relies primarily on turbulence characteristics of the lowest layers of the atmosphere. As a result, we identified new ways in which atmosphere behaves over mountains during daytime, which may serve to further improve forecasting capabilities.
Mckenzie J. Dice, John J. Cassano, and Gina C. Jozef
Weather Clim. Dynam., 5, 369–394, https://doi.org/10.5194/wcd-5-369-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/wcd-5-369-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
This study aims to identify the main reasonings for changes in boundary layer stability, namely changes in radiative forcing or mechanical mixing (wind shear). Across the continent of Antarctica, varying stability in the boundary layer is affected by many different forces, and this study seeks to characterize the main forcing mechanisms for these variations in stability across Antarctica, annually and seasonally.
Mckenzie J. Dice, John J. Cassano, Gina C. Jozef, and Mark Seefeldt
Weather Clim. Dynam., 4, 1045–1069, https://doi.org/10.5194/wcd-4-1045-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/wcd-4-1045-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
This study documents boundary layer stability profiles, from the surface to 500 m above ground level, present in radiosonde observations across the Antarctic continent. A boundary layer stability definition method is developed and applied to the radiosonde observations to determine the frequency and seasonality of stability regimes. It is found that, in the continental interior, strong stability is dominant throughout most of the year, while stability is more varied at coastal locations.
Matthias Göbel, Stefano Serafin, and Mathias W. Rotach
Weather Clim. Dynam., 4, 725–745, https://doi.org/10.5194/wcd-4-725-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/wcd-4-725-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
On summer days over mountains, upslope winds transport moist air towards mountain tops and beyond, making local rain showers more likely. We use idealized simulations to investigate how mountain steepness affects this mechanism. We find that steeper mountains lead to a delayed onset and lower intensity of the storms, because less moisture accumulates over the ridges and the thermal updraft zone at the top is narrower and thus more prone to the intrusion of dry air from the environment.
Julia Crook, Cornelia Klein, Sonja Folwell, Christopher M. Taylor, Douglas J. Parker, Adama Bamba, and Kouakou Kouadio
Weather Clim. Dynam., 4, 229–248, https://doi.org/10.5194/wcd-4-229-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/wcd-4-229-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
We estimate recent deforestation in West Africa and use a climate model allowing explicit convection to determine impacts on early season rainfall. We find enhanced rainfall over deforestation, in line with recent observational results, due to changes in circulation rather than humidity, showing potential for future studies. Local changes depend on initial soil moisture, deforestation extent, and ocean proximity, with sea breezes shifting inland where surface friction decreased.
Qinggang Gao, Christian Zeman, Jesus Vergara-Temprado, Daniela C. A. Lima, Peter Molnar, and Christoph Schär
Weather Clim. Dynam., 4, 189–211, https://doi.org/10.5194/wcd-4-189-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/wcd-4-189-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
We developed a vortex identification algorithm for realistic atmospheric simulations. The algorithm enabled us to obtain a climatology of vortex shedding from Madeira Island for a 10-year simulation period. This first objective climatological analysis of vortex streets shows consistency with observed atmospheric conditions. The analysis shows a pronounced annual cycle with an increasing vortex shedding rate from April to August and a sudden decrease in September.
Jonathan J. Day, Sarah Keeley, Gabriele Arduini, Linus Magnusson, Kristian Mogensen, Mark Rodwell, Irina Sandu, and Steffen Tietsche
Weather Clim. Dynam., 3, 713–731, https://doi.org/10.5194/wcd-3-713-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/wcd-3-713-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
A recent drive to develop seamless forecasting systems has culminated in the development of weather forecasting systems that include a coupled representation of the atmosphere, ocean and sea ice. Before this, sea ice and sea surface temperature anomalies were typically fixed throughout a given forecast. We show that the dynamic coupling is most beneficial during periods of rapid ice advance, where persistence is a poor forecast of the sea ice and leads to large errors in the uncoupled system.
Helen F. Dacre, Simon A. Josey, and Alan L. M. Grant
Weather Clim. Dynam., 1, 27–44, https://doi.org/10.5194/wcd-1-27-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/wcd-1-27-2020, 2020
Short summary
Short summary
The 2013–2014 winter sea surface temperature (SST) was anomalously cool in the mid-North Atlantic region. We investigate the processes by which cyclones can lead to SST cooling and their contribution towards the 2013–2014 SST anomaly. We find that cyclones induce a cold wake, which extends along the cyclones' cold front. Cyclones account for over 40 % of the observed cooling in the mid-North Atlantic. Thus, cyclones play a major role in determining the extreme 2013–2014 winter SST cooling.
Cited articles
Adler, B. and Kalthoff, N.: The Impact of Upstream Flow on the Atmospheric Boundary Layer in a Valley on a Mountainous Island, Bound.-Lay. Meteorol., 158, 429–452, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10546-015-0092-y, 2016. a
Beniston, M., Farinotti, D., Stoffel, M., Andreassen, L. M., Coppola, E., Eckert, N., Fantini, A., Giacona, F., Hauck, C., Huss, M., Huwald, H., Lehning, M., López-Moreno, J.-I., Magnusson, J., Marty, C., Morán-Tejéda, E., Morin, S., Naaim, M., Provenzale, A., Rabatel, A., Six, D., Stötter, J., Strasser, U., Terzago, S., and Vincent, C.: The European mountain cryosphere: a review of its current state, trends, and future challenges, The Cryosphere, 12, 759–794, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-12-759-2018, 2018. a, b, c
Björnsson, H., Gudmundsson, S., and Pálsson, F.: Glacier winds on Vatnajökull ice cap, Iceland, and their relation to temperatures of its lowland environs, Ann. Glaciol., 42, 291–296, https://doi.org/10.3189/172756405781812493, 2005. a
Byrne, M. P., Boos, W. R., and Hu, S.: Elevation-dependent warming: observations, models, and energetic mechanisms, Weather Clim. Dynam., 5, 763–777, https://doi.org/10.5194/wcd-5-763-2024, 2024. a
Conway, J. P., Helgason, W. D., Pomeroy, J. W., and Sicart, J. E.: Icefield Breezes: Mesoscale Diurnal Circulation in the Atmospheric Boundary Layer Over an Outlet of the Columbia Icefield, Canadian Rockies, J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos., 126, e2020JD034225, https://doi.org/10.1029/2020JD034225, 2021. a, b, c
Crameri, F.: Scientific colour maps, Zenodo [code], https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.8035877, 2023. a
Cremona, A., Huss, M., Landmann, J. M., Borner, J., and Farinotti, D.: European heat waves 2022: contribution to extreme glacier melt in Switzerland inferred from automated ablation readings, The Cryosphere, 17, 1895–1912, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-1895-2023, 2023. a
Cuxart, J.: When Can a High-Resolution Simulation Over Complex Terrain be Called LES?, Front. Earth Sci., 3, 6, https://doi.org/10.3389/feart.2015.00087, 2015. a
Deardorff, J. W.: Stratocumulus-capped mixed layers derived from a three-dimensional model, Bound.-Lay. Meteorol., 18, 495–527, https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00119502, 1980. a
Draeger, C., Radić, V., White, R. H., and Tessema, M. A.: Evaluation of reanalysis data and dynamical downscaling for surface energy balance modeling at mountain glaciers in western Canada, The Cryosphere, 18, 17–42, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-17-2024, 2024. a
French, J. R., Haimov, S. J., Oolman, L. D., Grubišić, V., Serafin, S., and Strauss, L.: Wave-induced boundary-layer separation in the lee of the Medicine Bow Mountains. Part I: Observations, J. Atmos. Sci., 72, 4845–4863, https://doi.org/10.1175/JAS-D-14-0376.1, 2015. a
Gerber, F., Besic, N., Sharma, V., Mott, R., Daniels, M., Gabella, M., Berne, A., Germann, U., and Lehning, M.: Spatial variability in snow precipitation and accumulation in COSMO–WRF simulations and radar estimations over complex terrain, The Cryosphere, 12, 3137–3160, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-12-3137-2018, 2018. a
Goger, B. and Dipankar, A.: The impact of mesh size, turbulence parameterization, and land-surface-exchange scheme on simulations of the mountain boundary layer in the hectometric range, Q. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 150, 3853–3873, https://doi.org/10.1002/qj.4799, 2024. a
Goger, B., Stiperski, I., Nicholson, L., and Sauter, T.: Large-eddy simulations of the atmospheric boundary layer over an Alpine glacier: Impact of synoptic flow direction and governing processes, Q. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc, 148, 1319–1343, https://doi.org/10.1002/qj.4263, 2022. a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, j, k, l, m, n, o, p, q
Gohm, A. and Mayr, G. J.: Hydraulic aspects of föhn winds in an Alpine valley, Q. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 130, 449–480, https://doi.org/10.1256/qj.03.28, 2004. a
Grisogono, B., Kraljević, L., and Jeričević, A.: The low-level katabatic jet height versus Monin–Obukhov height, Q. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 133, 2133–2136, https://doi.org/10.1002/qj.190, 2007. a
Grubišić, V., Doyle, J. D., Kuettner, J., Dirks, R., Cohn, S. A., Pan, L. L., Mobbs, S., Smith, R. B., Whiteman, C. D., Czyzyk, S., Vosper, S., Weissmann, M., Haimov, S., de Wekker, S. F. J., and Chow, F. K.: The Terrain-Induced Rotor Experiment, B. Am. Meteor. Soc., 89, 1513–1533, https://doi.org/10.1175/2008BAMS2487.1, 2008. a
Grubišić, V., Serafin, S., Strauss, L., Haimov, S. J., French, J. R., and Oolman, L. D.: Wave-induced boundary-layer separation in the lee of the Medicine Bow Mountains. Part II: Numerical modeling, J. Atmos. Sci., 72, 4865–4884, https://doi.org/10.1175/JAS-D-14-0381.1, 2015. a
Haid, M., Gohm, A., Umek, L., Ward, H. C., and Rotach, M. W.: Cold-Air Pool Processes in the Inn Valley During Föhn: A Comparison of Four Cases During the PIANO Campaign, Bound.-Lay. Meteor., 182, 335–362, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10546-021-00663-9, 2022. a, b
Haualand, K. F., Sauter, T., Abermann, J., de Villiers, S. D., Georgi, A., Goger, B., Dawson, I., Nerhus, S. D., Robson, B., Hauknes Sjursen, K., Thomas, D., Thomaser, M., and Yde, J. C.: Micro-Meteorological Impact of Glacier Retreat and Proglacial Lake Temperature in Western Norway, ESS Open Archive, https://doi.org/10.22541/essoar.172926901.19613096/v1, 2024. a, b
Haugeneder, M., Lehning, M., Stiperski, I., Reynolds, D., and Mott, R.: Turbulence in the Strongly Heterogeneous Near-Surface Boundary Layer over Patchy Snow, Bound.-Lay. Meteorol., 190, 7, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10546-023-00856-4, 2024. a
Hersbach, H., Bell, B., Berrisford, P., Hirahara, S., Horányi, A., Muñoz Sabater, J., Nicolas, J., Peubey, C., Radu, R., Schepers, D., Simmons, A., Soci, C., Abdalla, S., Abellan, X., Balsamo, G., Bechtold, P., Biavati, G., Bidlot, J., Bonavita, M., De Chiara, G., Dahlgren, P., Dee, D., Diamantakis, M., Dragani, R., Flemming, J., Forbes, R., Fuentes, M., Geer, A., Haimberger, L., Healy, S., Hogan, R. J., Hólm, E., Janisková, M., Keeley, S., Laloyaux, P., Lopez, P., Lupu, C., Radnoti, G., de Rosnay, P., Rozum, I., Vamborg, F., Villaume, S., and Thépaut, J.-N.: The ERA5 global reanalysis, Q. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 146, 1999–2049, https://doi.org/10.1002/qj.3803, 2020. a
Hock, R., Rasul, G., Adler, C., Cáceres, B., Gruber, S., Hirabayashi, Y., Jackson, M., Kääb, A., Kang, S., Kutuzov, S., Milner, A., Molau, U., Morin, S., Orlove, B., and Steltzer, H.: High Mountain Areas, in: IPCC Special Report on the Ocean and Cryosphere in a Changing Climate, edited by: Pörtner, H.-O., Roberts, D., Masson-Delmotte, V., Zhai, P., Tignor, M., Poloczanska, E., Mintenbeck, K., Alegría, A., Nicolai, M., Okem, A., Petzold, J., Rama, B., and Weyer, N., Cambridge University Press, 131–202, https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009157964.004, 2022. a
Hunter, J. D.: Matplotlib: A 2D Graphics Environment, Comput. Sci. Eng., 9, 90–95, https://doi.org/10.1109/MCSE.2007.55, 2007. a
Iacono, M. J., Delamere, J. S., Mlawer, E. J., Shephard, M. W., Clough, S. A., and Collins, W. D.: Radiative forcing by long-lived greenhouse gases: Calculations with the AER radiative transfer models, J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos., 113, D13103, https://doi.org/10.1029/2008JD009944, 2008. a
Jackson, P. L., Mayr, G., and Vosper, S.: Dynamically-Driven Winds, in: Mountain Weather Research and Forecasting, edited by Chow, F. K., De Wekker, S. F. J., and Snyder, B. J., Springer Atmospheric Sciences, Springer Netherlands, ISBN 978-94-007-4097-6 978-94-007-4098-3, 121–218, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-4098-3_3, 2013. a
Jiang, Q. and Doyle, J. D.: Gravity Wave Breaking over the Central Alps: Role of Complex Terrain, J. Atmos. Sci., 61, 2249–2266, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0469(2004)061<2249:GWBOTC>2.0.CO;2, 2004. a
Jiang, Q., Doyle, J. D., and Smith, R. B.: Interaction between Trapped Waves and Boundary Layers, J. Atmos. Sci., 63, 617–633, https://doi.org/10.1175/JAS3640.1, 2006. a
Jiménez, P. A., Dudhia, J., González-Rouco, J. F., Navarro, J., Montávez, J. P., and García-Bustamante, E.: A Revised Scheme for the WRF Surface Layer Formulation, Mon. Weather Rev., 140, 898–918, https://doi.org/10.1175/MWR-D-11-00056.1, 2012. a, b, c
Jonassen, M. O., Ágústsson, H., and Ólafsson, H.: Impact of surface characteristics on flow over a mesoscale mountain, Q. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 140, 2330–2341, https://doi.org/10.1002/qj.2302, 2014. a, b
Kalthoff, N., Adler, B., and Bischoff-Gauß, I.: Spatio-temporal Structure of the Boundary Layer under the Impact of Mountain Waves, Meteorol. Z., 29, 409–424, https://doi.org/10.1127/metz/2020/1033, 2020. a
Lehner, M.: The Boundary Layer Over Complex Terrain, in: Reference Module in Earth Systems and Environmental Sciences, Elsevier, ISBN 978-0-12-409548-9, https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-323-96026-7.00075-8, 2024. a
Lehner, M. and Rotach, M. W.: Current Challenges in Understanding and Predicting Transport and Exchange in the Atmosphere over Mountainous Terrain, Atmosphere, 9, 276, https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos9070276, 2018. a
Litt, M., Sicart, J.-E., Six, D., Wagnon, P., and Helgason, W. D.: Surface-layer turbulence, energy balance and links to atmospheric circulations over a mountain glacier in the French Alps, The Cryosphere, 11, 971–987, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-11-971-2017, 2017. a
Mahrt, L.: Flux Sampling Errors for Aircraft and Towers, J. Atmos. Ocean. Tech., 15, 416–429, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0426(1998)015<0416:FSEFAA>2.0.CO;2, 1998. a
Matiu, M., Crespi, A., Bertoldi, G., Carmagnola, C. M., Marty, C., Morin, S., Schöner, W., Cat Berro, D., Chiogna, G., De Gregorio, L., Kotlarski, S., Majone, B., Resch, G., Terzago, S., Valt, M., Beozzo, W., Cianfarra, P., Gouttevin, I., Marcolini, G., Notarnicola, C., Petitta, M., Scherrer, S. C., Strasser, U., Winkler, M., Zebisch, M., Cicogna, A., Cremonini, R., Debernardi, A., Faletto, M., Gaddo, M., Giovannini, L., Mercalli, L., Soubeyroux, J.-M., Sušnik, A., Trenti, A., Urbani, S., and Weilguni, V.: Observed snow depth trends in the European Alps: 1971 to 2019, The Cryosphere, 15, 1343–1382, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-1343-2021, 2021. a
Monin, A. S. and Obukhov, A. M.: Osnovnye zakonomernosti turbulentnogo peremeshivanija v prizemnom sloe atmosfery (Basic Laws of Turbulent Mixing in the Atmosphere Near the Ground), Trudy geofiz. inst. AN SSSR, 24, 163–187, 1954. a
Mott, R., Wolf, A., Kehl, M., Kunstmann, H., Warscher, M., and Grünewald, T.: Avalanches and micrometeorology driving mass and energy balance of the lowest perennial ice field of the Alps: a case study, The Cryosphere, 13, 1247–1265, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-13-1247-2019, 2019. a
Obleitner, F.: Climatological features of glacier and valley winds at the Hintereisferner (Ötztal Alps, Austria), Theor. Appl. Climatol., 49, 225–239, https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00867462, 1994. a, b
Oerlemans, J. F.: The microclimate of valley glaciers, IGITUR, Universiteitsbibliotheek Utrecht, ISBN 987-90-393-5305-5, https://dspace.library.uu.nl/handle/1874/202997, 2010. a
Pepin, N. C., Arnone, E., Gobiet, A., Haslinger, K., Kotlarski, S., Notarnicola, C., Palazzi, E., Seibert, P., Serafin, S., Schöner, W., Terzago, S., Thornton, J. M., Vuille, M., and Adler, C.: Climate Changes and Their Elevational Patterns in the Mountains of the World, Rev. Geophys., 60, e2020RG000730, https://doi.org/10.1029/2020RG000730, 2022. a
Pfister, L., Gohm, A., Kossmann, M., Wieser, A., Babić, N., Handwerker, J., Wildmann, N., Vogelmann, H., Baumann-Stanzer, K., Alexa, A., Lapo, K., Paunović, I., Leinweber, R., Sedlmeier, K., Lehner, M., Hieden, A., Speidel, J., Federer, M., and Rotach, M. W.: The TEAMx-PC22 Alpine field campaign – Objectives, instrumentation, and observed phenomena, Meteorol. Z., 33, 199–228, https://doi.org/10.1127/metz/2024/1214, 2024. a
Piermattei, L., Zemp, M., Sommer, C., Brun, F., Braun, M. H., Andreassen, L. M., Belart, J. M. C., Berthier, E., Bhattacharya, A., Boehm Vock, L., Bolch, T., Dehecq, A., Dussaillant, I., Falaschi, D., Florentine, C., Floricioiu, D., Ginzler, C., Guillet, G., Hugonnet, R., Huss, M., Kääb, A., King, O., Klug, C., Knuth, F., Krieger, L., La Frenierre, J., McNabb, R., McNeil, C., Prinz, R., Sass, L., Seehaus, T., Shean, D., Treichler, D., Wendt, A., and Yang, R.: Observing glacier elevation changes from spaceborne optical and radar sensors – an inter-comparison experiment using ASTER and TanDEM-X data, The Cryosphere, 18, 3195–3230, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-3195-2024, 2024. a
Pineda, N. Jorba, O., Jorge, J., and Baldasano, J. M.: Using NOAA AVHRR and SPOT VGT data to estimate surface parameters: application to a mesoscale meteorological model, Int. J. Remote Sens., 25, 129–143, https://doi.org/10.1080/0143116031000115201, 2004. a, b
Potter, E. R., Orr, A., Willis, I. C., Bannister, D., and Salerno, F.: Dynamical Drivers of the Local Wind Regime in a Himalayan Valley, J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos., 123, 13186–13202, https://doi.org/10.1029/2018JD029427, 2018. a
Reynolds, D., Gutmann, E., Kruyt, B., Haugeneder, M., Jonas, T., Gerber, F., Lehning, M., and Mott, R.: The High-resolution Intermediate Complexity Atmospheric Research (HICAR v1.1) model enables fast dynamic downscaling to the hectometer scale, Geosci. Model Dev., 16, 5049–5068, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-16-5049-2023, 2023. a
Reynolds, D., Quéno, L., Lehning, M., Jafari, M., Berg, J., Jonas, T., Haugeneder, M., and Mott, R.: Seasonal snow–atmosphere modeling: let's do it, The Cryosphere, 18, 4315–4333, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-4315-2024, 2024. a
Rotach, M. W. and Zardi, D.: On the boundary-layer structure over highly complex terrain: Key findings from MAP, Q. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 133, 937–948, https://doi.org/10.1002/qj.71, 2007. a
Rounce, D. R., Hock, R., Maussion, F., Hugonnet, R., Kochtitzky, W., Huss, M., Berthier, E., Brinkerhoff, D., Compagno, L., Copland, L., Farinotti, D., Menounos, B., and McNabb, R. W.: Global glacier change in the 21st century: Every increase in temperature matters, Science, 379, 78–83, https://doi.org/10.1126/science.abo1324, 2023. a
Sauter, T. and Galos, S. P.: Effects of local advection on the spatial sensible heat flux variation on a mountain glacier, The Cryosphere, 10, 2887–2905, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-10-2887-2016, 2016. a
Schemann, V., Ebell, K., Pospichal, B., Neggers, R., Moseley, C., and Stevens, B.: Linking Large-Eddy Simulations to Local Cloud Observations, J. Adv. Model. Earth Sy., 12, e2020MS002209, https://doi.org/10.1029/2020MS002209, 2020. a, b
Scorer, R. S.: Theory of waves in the lee of mountains, Q. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 75, 41–56, https://doi.org/10.1002/qj.49707532308, 1949. a, b
Shaw, T. E., Buri, P., McCarthy, M., Miles, E. S., Ayala, A., and Pellicciotti, F.: The Decaying Near-Surface Boundary Layer of a Retreating Alpine Glacier, Geophys. Res. Lett., 50, e2023GL103043, https://doi.org/10.1029/2023GL103043, 2023. a, b, c
Shaw, T. E., Buri, P., McCarthy, M., Miles, E. S., and Pellicciotti, F.: Local Controls on Near-Surface Glacier Cooling Under Warm Atmospheric Conditions, J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos., 129, e2023JD040214, https://doi.org/10.1029/2023JD040214, 2024. a
Skamarock, W. C., Klemp, J. B., Dudhia, J., Gill, D. O., Liu, Z., Berner, J., Wang, W., Powers, J. G., Duda, M. G., Barker, D. M., and Huang, X.-Y.: A Description of the Advanced Research WRF Model Version 4, Tech. rep., NCAR Technical Note NCAR/TN-556+STR, https://doi.org/10.5065/1dfh-6p97, 2019. a
Steyn, D. G., Wekker, S. F. J. D., Kossmann, M., and Martilli, A.: Boundary Layers and Air Quality in Mountainous Terrain, in: Mountain Weather Research and Forecasting, edited by: Chow, F. K., De Wekker, S. F. J., and Snyder, B. J., Springer Atmospheric Sciences, Springer Netherlands, 261–289, ISBN 978-94-007-4097-6 978-94-007-4098-3, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-4098-3_5, 2013. a
Stiperski, I. and Calaf, M.: Generalizing Monin-Obukhov Similarity Theory (1954) for Complex Atmospheric Turbulence, Phys. Rev. Lett., 130, 124001, https://doi.org/10.1103/PhysRevLett.130.124001, 2023. a
Strasser, U., Marke, T., Braun, L., Escher-Vetter, H., Juen, I., Kuhn, M., Maussion, F., Mayer, C., Nicholson, L., Niedertscheider, K., Sailer, R., Stötter, J., Weber, M., and Kaser, G.: The Rofental: a high Alpine research basin (1890–3770 m a.s.l.) in the Ötztal Alps (Austria) with over 150 years of hydrometeorological and glaciological observations, Earth Syst. Sci. Data, 10, 151–171, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-10-151-2018, 2018. a
Strauss, L., Serafin, S., Haimov, S., and Grubišić, V.: Turbulence in breaking mountain waves and atmospheric rotors estimated from airborne in situ and Doppler radar measurements, Q. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 141, 3207–3225, https://doi.org/10.1002/qj.2604, 2015. a
Stull, R. B.: Boundary Conditions and Surface Forcings, in: An Introduction to Boundary Layer Meteorology, edited by: Stull, R. B., no. 13 in Atmospheric Sciences Library, Springer Netherlands, 251–294, ISBN 978-90-277-2769-5 978-94-009-3027-8, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-009-3027-8, 1988. a
Stull, R. B.: Practical Meteorology: An Algebra-based Survey of Atmospheric Science, Univ. of British Columbia, ISBN 978-0-88865-283-6, 2017. a
Thompson, G., Field, P. R., Rasmussen, R. M., and Hall, W. D.: Explicit Forecasts of Winter Precipitation Using an Improved Bulk Microphysics Scheme. Part II: Implementation of a New Snow Parameterization, Mon. Weather Rev., 136, 5095–5115, https://doi.org/10.1175/2008MWR2387.1, 2008. a
Turton, J. V., Kirchgaessner, A., Ross, A. N., and King, J. C.: The spatial distribution and temporal variability of föhn winds over the Larsen C ice shelf, Antarctica, Q. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 144, 1169–1178, https://doi.org/10.1002/qj.3284, 2018. a, b
Umek, L.: lukasumek/WRF_LES_diagnostics: WRF_LES_diagnostics, Zenodo [code], https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.3901119, 2020. a, b
Umek, L., Gohm, A., Haid, M., Ward, H. C., and Rotach, M. W.: Large eddy simulation of foehn-cold pool interactions in the Inn Valley during PIANO IOP2, Q. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 147, 944–982, https://doi.org/10.1002/qj.3954, 2021. a
Voordendag, A., Prinz, R., Schuster, L., and Kaser, G.: Brief communication: The Glacier Loss Day as an indicator of a record-breaking negative glacier mass balance in 2022, The Cryosphere, 17, 3661–3665, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-3661-2023, 2023. a, b
Voordendag, A., Goger, B., Prinz, R., Sauter, T., Mölg, T., Saigger, M., and Kaser, G.: A novel framework to investigate wind-driven snow redistribution over an Alpine glacier: combination of high-resolution terrestrial laser scans and large-eddy simulations, The Cryosphere, 18, 849–868, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-849-2024, 2024. a, b, c
Vosper, S. B., Ross, A. N., Renfrew, I. A., Sheridan, P., Elvidge, A. D., and Grubišić, V.: Current Challenges in Orographic Flow Dynamics: Turbulent Exchange Due to Low-Level Gravity-Wave Processes, Atmosphere, 9, 361, https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos9090361, 2018. a
Wagner, J. S., Gohm, A., and Rotach, M. W.: The Impact of Horizontal Model Grid Resolution on the Boundary Layer Structure over an Idealized Valley, Mon. Weather Rev., 142, 3446–3465, https://doi.org/10.1175/MWR-D-14-00002.1, 2014. a
WGMS: Hintereisferner, Alps, https://wgms.ch/products_ref_glaciers/hintereisferner-alps/ (last access: 27 March 2025), 2017. a
WRF: WRF Version 4.1, GitHub [code], https://github.com/wrf-model/WRF/releases/tag/v4.1 (last access: 27 March 2025), 2019. a
Wyngaard, J. C.: Turbulence in the Atmosphere, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511840524, 2010. a
Zängl, G.: The impact of weak synoptic forcing on the valley-wind circulation in the Alpine Inn Valley, Meteorol. Atmos. Phys., 105, 37–53, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00703-009-0030-y, 2009. a
Zardi, D. and Whiteman, C. D.: Diurnal Mountain Wind Systems, in: Mountain Weather Research and Forecasting, edited by: Chow, F. K., De Wekker, S. F. J., and Snyder, B. J., Springer Atmospheric Sciences, Springer Netherlands, 35–119, ISBN 978-94-007-4097-6 978-94-007-4098-3, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-4098-3, 2013. a
Zekollari, H., Huss, M., and Farinotti, D.: Modelling the future evolution of glaciers in the European Alps under the EURO-CORDEX RCM ensemble, The Cryosphere, 13, 1125–1146, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-13-1125-2019, 2019. a
Short summary
We study with numerical simulations whether changing glacier ice surfaces impacts the atmospheric boundary layer structure over a glacier. Under north-westerly flow, a gravity wave forms over the glacier valley. When the surrounding upstream glaciers are removed, the gravity wave is weakened and breaks earlier. This leads to stronger turbulent mixing over the remaining glacier and to higher temperatures. We suggest that glaciers influence each other and should be studied as a connected system.
We study with numerical simulations whether changing glacier ice surfaces impacts the...
